Since the term "homosexual" did not exist in classical or medieval European languages, some have assumed that there were none and that all same-sex encounters were governed by circumstances. This would include situations in which there were no other partners available or, as in Greece and Rome, that the use of boys by more powerful men was another manifestation of a patriarchal society. Recently the subject has been looked at more closely, with the result that "queering" history has allowed more nuanced readings of sources to show a broad spectrum of orientation. Ferguson (French, University of Delaware) examines some of the literature of the French Renaissance using the more fluid definitions of gender. While most of his examples are of male same-sex relationships, he also discusses lesbian and transgendered behavior. Ferguson explores the representations of same-sex attachment and how it is viewed by different segments of society, particularly the nobility and the Church. An interesting side note is that homosexual behavior is not as roundly condemned as cross dressing. The abdication of one's birth gender is most unsettling and least tolerated to this day. Ferguson's study furthers the understanding of the history behind our modern attitudes. Annotation ©2009 Book News, Inc., Portland, OR (booknews.com)