Following the Japanese occupation of Manchuria in 1931, frequent military clashes between the Japanese and the Chinese erupted in full-scale war in 1937. Facing a technologically superior enemy, the Chinese turned to foreign powers to provide it with the military aid and defense assistance vital to its attempt to defeat the Japanese just as various Western powers significant military and intelligence operations inside China. Yu (East Asia and military history, US Naval Academy) describes these foreign aid and intelligence activities, arguing that they collectively undermined the authority and legitimacy of the Nationalist government led by Chiang Kai-Shek and directly contributed to his defeat by the Communist Party four years after the war was over. Annotation ©2007 Book News, Inc., Portland, OR (booknews.com)