<div>Nationalism was regarded as a positive force shaping "modern" societies and states but in Europe it has been overshadowed by the disasters of two world wars. Outside Europe, however, it has continued to flourish throughout the 20th century. Covering Turkey, Iran, Abkhazia, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Bangladesh, this study reveals the counter-forces unleashed by the project of nationalist modernization, and the stimulation of identity politics as the result of ruthless repression of minority languages, culture, traditions, and religion--the life-blood of minority ethnicity. The study examines how these policies have strengthened identity politics and the movements for opting out of the nation.<br></div>